The Mark 44 torpedo uses a water-activated magnesium battery. Some primary magnesium batteries have been commercialized and find use as land-based backup systems as well as undersea power sources, using seawater as the electrolyte. The magnesium–air battery is a primary cell, but has the potential to be 'refuelable' by replacement of the anode and electrolyte. General Electric produced a magnesium–air battery operating in neutral NaCl solution as early as the 1960s. Ī magnesium–air battery has a theoretical operating voltage of 3.1 V and energy density of 6.8 kWh/kg.
The BA-4386 was widely used by the US military from 1968 until ca.1984 when it was replaced by a lithium thionyl chloride battery. The magnesium dry battery type BA-4386 was fully commercialised, with costs per unit approaching that of zinc batteries – in comparison to equivalent zinc-carbon cells the batteries had greater capacity by volume, and longer shelf life. For example, a water-activated silver chloride/magnesium reserve battery became commercially available by 1943. A number of chemistries for reserve battery types have been researched, with cathode materials including silver chloride, copper(I) chloride, palladium(II) chloride, copper(I) iodide, copper(I) thiocyanate, manganese dioxide and air (oxygen). In the reactive anode, they take advantage of the low stability and high energy of magnesium metal, whose bonding is weaker by more than 250 kJ/mol compared to iron and most other transition metals, which bond strongly via their partially filled d-orbitals. Primary magnesium cells have been developed since the early 20th century.
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